Personal historical perspective of HIV: part 11.

All animal life on earth is thought to have a common origin and have common genetic mechanisms. Evolution has enabled differentiation of species. Pathogens likewise have evolved within various species and mostly come to a settled dynamic equilibrium such that co-existence results (pathogens ideally should not kill their hosts). Problems arise when pathogens jump species because the new host had not developed any resistance. These infections from related species are known as zoonoses. COVID-19 is the latest example of a virus entering another species but HIV (and various strains of influenza) were previous examples. HIV entered the human population from monkeys in Africa. These two papers outline the underlying principle of HIV and the differing epidemiologies in Africa, the USA and in Edinburgh. The underlying immunosuppression of HIV in Africa was initially hidden behind common infections and HIV first came to world awareness in focal areas of the USA as a disease seemingly limited to gay males. The epidemic of intravenous drug abuse in Edinburgh was associated with overlapping epidemics of bloodborne viruses like hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV.

Viral infections and implications for male reproductive health.

Viral infections have haunted humankind since times immemorial. Overpopulation, globalization, and extensive deforestation have created an ideal environment for a viral spread with unknown and multiple shedding routes. Many viruses can infect the male reproductive tract, with potential adverse consequences to male reproductive health, including infertility and cancer. Moreover, some genital tract viral infections can be sexually transmitted, potentially impacting the resulting offspring's health. We have summarized the evidence concerning the presence and adverse effects of the relevant viruses on the reproductive tract (mumps virus, human immunodeficiency virus, herpes virus, human papillomavirus, hepatitis B and C viruses, Ebola virus, Zika virus, influenza virus, and coronaviruses), their routes of infection, target organs and cells, prevalence and pattern of virus shedding in semen, as well as diagnosis/testing and treatment strategies. The pathophysiological understanding in the male genital tract is essential to assess its clinical impact on male reproductive health and guide future research.

Clinical characteristics in patients with SARS-CoV-2/HBV co-infection.

COVID-19 has become a global pandemic and garnered international attention. Although the clinical features of COVID-19-related liver injury have been investigated, there have been no reports and studies on the clinical characteristics of COVID-19 patients co-infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV). This study aimed to evaluate whether SARS-CoV-2/HBV co-infection could influence liver function and the disease outcome. All 326 confirmed COVID-19 cases in Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center (The COVID-19 designated hospital in Shanghai, China) from 20 January 2020 to 24 February 2020 were enrolled and followed up until February 29 in this study. The clinical, laboratory data and the length of stay were collected and analysed retrospectively. 20 patients with HBV co-infection (6.1%) and 306 patients (93.9%) without HBV infection showed no differences in the level of liver function parameters. However, compared with HBsAg- patients [145.4 mg/L (103.9-179.2)], HBsAg + patients had a lower level of prealbumin [(102.3 mg/L (76.22-160.2), P = .0367]. There were also no significant differences for the discharge rate and the length of stay between two groups. Taken together, we found no evidence that SARS-CoV-2/HBV co-infection could aggravate liver injury or extend duration of hospitalization.